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The Umayyad caliphate (661-750) was the second caliphate established after the Rashidun Caliphate. The Umayyads were one of the most influential tribes of Makkah. Notably, Uthman ibn Affan (RA), the third Rashidun caliph, was from the Umayyad clan.
However, after Uthman’s (RA) martyrdom, Ali (RA) became the new Caliph. Many of the governors that Uthman (RA) had appointed from his tribe refused to accept Ali (AS) as the Caliph and demanded revenge for Uthman's (RA) death. This resulted in the first fitna (Muslim civil war), which increased the division among Muslims. As a consequence of this war, Ali (RA) lost control over most of the Caliphate territory, and Muawiya, who was governor of Syria during the Rashidun Caliphate, took advantage of this and, with the support of other leaders, established the Umayyad Caliphate in 661 and the Rashidun Caliphate ended.
The Umayyad Caliphate continued the expansion of the Islamic empire and ruled over an area of 11 million square kilometres that stretched from Spain to India. The culture of these areas changed dramatically during the Ummayad Caliphate as the population accepted Islam. The caliphate continued ruling for the next 90 years until it was abolished in 750.
Here is a brief overview of the Umayyad Caliphate, how it rose to power, its contributions to the Islamic world, and why it collapsed.
The Umayyads, or the Banu Umayya, were a prominent family of the Quraysh tribe of Makkah during the pre-Islamic period. By the end of the 6th century, the Umayyads controlled the Quraysh's prosperous trade networks with Syria which gave them a lot of political influence.
When Prophet Muhammed (PBUH) started preaching Islam, the Umayyads under Abu Sufyan opposed this and started the persecution of early Muslims in Makkah. However, after Prophet Muhammed (PBUH) captured Makkah in 630, the whole city accepted Islam, including Abu Sufyan and the Umayyad clan.
To gain the support of the Umayyad clan, Prophet Muhammed (PBUH) gave Abu Sufyan some stake in the government and appointed the clan members to prominent positions. They also relocated to Madina from Makkah, the new political centre of Islam.
The martyrdom of the third-caliph Uthman (RA) in 656 marked a turning point in the history of the Islamic empire. His successor Ali (RA), was tasked with overseeing the caliphate and bringing his predecessor swift justice. More importantly, many prominent Prophet Muhammed (PBUH) companions refused to accept Ali (RA) as the new Caliph, including the entire Ummayad clan. They wanted Ali (RA) to avenge the death of Uthman (RA) first, but Ali (RA) delayed that, which made Ummayads angry, and they refused to accept Ali (RA) as the Caliph.
Muawiya, who was the governor of Syria at that time, was at the forefront of this opposition. As the cousin of Uthman (AS), Muawiya refused to accept anything less than the execution of those responsible for Uthman's (AS) martyrdom. When this was delayed, it resulted in the First Fitna (661), which ended with Ali's (AS) shahadah at the hands of an extremist group called the Kharijites.
Muawiya, the governor of Syria, declared himself the first Umayyad caliph following the assassination of Caliph Ali (AS), the last of the Rashidun caliphs. This marked the beginning of the Umayyad dynasty. To strengthen the centralisation of power, the capital was moved to Damascus.
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Umayyad caliphate had an everlasting and long impact on the world and Muslims particularly. Here are some of its key achievements:
The Umayyad Empire significantly expanded the Islamic world. Its armies conquered territories from Spain to India and controlled important cities such as Bukhara, Samarkand, Khwarezm, Tashkent, and Fergana.
Umayyad Caliphate was a large empire in terms of both land area and population, covering 11 million square kilometres and encompassing 62 million people (29% of the world's population) at the peak of its power.
Islam spread rapidly throughout the territories captured by the Ummayads. These included the southern Mediterranean, the Middle East, North Africa and Central Asia regions whose people embraced Islam as their religion.
Also, the Umayyads' conquests had long-term impacts on the religious and cultural life of the conquered regions.
One of the greatest accomplishments of the Umayyads was their establishment of the postal service, which enabled people within the empire to communicate freely with one another. Moreover, their financial infrastructure was based on a credit-based banking system. The Bayt al-mal functioned as the finance house for various purposes such as assistance to persons in need of financing, to those unable to repay the loan, for marriage expenses, as well as loans to farmers for agricultural development
Islamic art flourished during the Umayyad Caliphate. The Umayyads built many of the most beautiful structures. They developed new architectural designs by combining Byzantine and Mesopotamian ornaments.
The Umayyads also transformed mosques into works of art. Before this time, Islamic mosques were simple and primitive. The Umayyads introduced new design elements such as more aisles, ornamental panels, decorated mihrabs, and minarets. The Great Mosque of Damascus and the Dome of the Rock at Jerusalem represent two of the greatest architectural achievements during this period.
Byzantine and Sasanian architectural traditions contributed to Islamic architecture under Umayyad rule, but it also innovated by combining these styles and experimenting with new construction types.
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During the Umayyad period, the capital was relocated from Medina to Damascus, and tribal traditions were replaced with an imperial government headed by a monarch. Arabic, replacing Greek, Persian, and Coptic, was the official language of administration, reinforcing an Arab Islamic identity in the new territories.
Under the Umayyads, a more efficient bureaucracy was developed. Governors were designated as viziers and were responsible for managing smaller government units.
The Umayyad government was modelled on that of the Byzantine Empire, which had previously controlled much of the territory it conquered. The empire had several provinces, and the borders of these provinces changed frequently during the Umayyad Caliphate.
The caliph appointed a governor for each province. The governor was responsible for overseeing the religious officials, army leaders, police, and the local civil administration. Taxes from that province were used to cover local expenses, and the remaining amount was sent to the central government in Damascus every year
Under the Umayyads, the political authority of the Caliphate was effectively and firmly established. Several rebellions were crushed by brute force, and those who stirred uprisings were not given a second chance.
The economic policies of the Umayyad Caliphate were crucial in maintaining the vast empire's stability and growth. One of the central elements was their taxation system, which included jizya (tax on non-Muslims), kharaj (tax on agricultural produce), and zakat (charitable tax for Muslims). This structure ensured revenue from both Muslim and non-Muslim populations, creating a balanced financial base. Furthermore, agricultural development accounted for the majority of economic growth. The government allotted uncultivated lands free of charge.
The Ummayad Caliphate also introduced a coinage system, minting dinar and dirham currencies. Earlier Umayyad gold dinars and silver dirhams featured the caliph holding a sword and wearing an Arab headdress, with Islam's testimony inscribed on the sides.
In later years, however, coins began to feature Arabic inscriptions without any images of the Caliph. Each new dinar bears verses from the Quran on both sides, expressing the message of Islam.
Even though the Ummayad Caliphate at the time was a powerful empire that had full control over its territory, it could still only last for 90 years. There are multiple reasons for its downfall, such as:
Shias believed that the Holy Prophet (PBUH) appointed Ali (RA) as his successor because he was from his family. Therefore, only the descendants of the Prophet (PBUH) are authorised to rule over Muslims. However, this did not happen, and Shias started opposing the other caliphates. After Hussain (RA) 's martyrdom at the hands of Ummayads in Karbala, the opposition increased. This only created more problems for the Ummayads.
Kharijites, on the other hand, were an extremist group that believed any Caliph who sinned or came to power by force should be killed and disposed of. The doctrines of these two groups differed, but their hostility towards the Umayyads was similar.
When they had the opportunity, they fought against almost all Umayyad rulers, and they never allowed the Umayyads to rule peacefully. Furthermore, Shias supported the Abbasid movement, which led to the fall of the Umayyad Caliphate. It would appear that these two groups were a constant problem for the Umayyads.
Prior to Islam's arrival, Arab tribes were hostile to one another. As time passed, the effects of Islamic unity weakened, and tribal differences began to resurface during the time of the Umayyads.
Several tribes in Syria and Iraq were influenced by the Byzantine and Persian empires before Islam arrived. There was a deep-rooted enmity between them. It was also their differences that contributed to the downfall of the Umayyad Dynasty.
In the Rashidun Caliphate period, any capable Muslim could become a ruler by obtaining consensus from his fellow Muslims (Shura). However, this was not the case during the reign of the Umayyad dynasty. In this monarchical society, the new ruler could only be the son, brother, or close relative of the caliph of the Umayyad clan. In general, most Muslims did not agree with this system.
As a result of this act, a number of incompetent rulers were also appointed during the latter half of the Umayyad Dynasty. They did not resolve internal and external problems smoothly. The rise of incapable rulers also caused the decline of the Umayyad dynasty.
The Umayyad Dynasty was dominated by Arab tribes. A major goal of the Umayyads was to propagate Arabian culture and language in non-Arab regions of the Caliphate. A heavy tax was imposed on newly converted Muslims from non-Arab areas (commonly known as mawalis) to increase revenue. This resulted in much hostility from non-Arabs towards the Umayyads who sometimes allied themselves with Shias and Kharjities.
It was in the latter stages of the Umayyad dynasty that the Abbasids (a clan of Hashemite Arabs) began their secret struggle against the Umayyads. Many people in the former Persian Empire (especially in Khurasan) disliked the rule of the Umayyads, so it was well received. By utilising their close relationship with Prophet Muhammad (PBUH), the Abbasids gained support from these areas and also from Shias and non-Muslims as well.
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The Umayyad Caliphate ruled the Islamic world from 661 CE to 750 CE. It had an everlasting impact on the region it ruled where Islamic culture and values spread and still continue to this day. The main reason for its downfall was the incompetent rulers and the rise of the Abbasid movement, which gained significant popularity in the last years.
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