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The Ottoman Empire, also called the Ottoman Sultanate, was a Turkish Islamic state that ruled much of North Africa, West Asia, and Southeast Europe between the 14th and early 20th centuries. At its peak in the mid-16th century, the total area of the caliphate was around 1.8 million km², covering three continents.
The Ottoman dynasty was founded in 1299 by Turkish tribal leader Osman Gazi in Anatolia. Over the next three centuries, the empire continued to expand towards the Balkans in the north and Egypt and North Africa in the west.
The Byzantine capital of Constantinople (present-day Istanbul) was made the empire’s capital in 1453. The Ottoman Sultans also adopted the title of ‘Caliph’ in 1517 after abolishing the Abbasid caliphate and established themselves as the successor of the Holy Prophet (PBUH) and to unite the Muslim Ummah.
The Ottoman Empire is widely considered one of the most powerful and influential Islamic empire throughout history. Its strength lay in its military and strategic position controlling key trade routes, such as the Silk Road, and maritime access to the Mediterranean, Black Sea, and Red Sea, giving it immense geopolitical influence.
Here is a brief history of the Ottoman Empire, explaining how it became so powerful and what led to its downfall.
The Ottoman Empire was founded in Anatolia (present-day Turkiye). A series of Turkish tribes rose to power after the Seljuk Empire lost power and got divided into further smaller regions in the 13th century.
Osman I, a leader of Turkish tribes in Anatolia, founded the Ottoman Empire in 1299 after some successful military campaigns and uniting nearby tribes. The term "Ottoman" derives from Osman's Arabic name, "Uthman".
As soon as Osman established the Ottoman Empire, his territory and influence over the region quickly grew. His successors, Orhan, Murad I, and Bayezid I expanded the empire. In 1326, Bursa, one of the earliest capitals of the Ottoman Empire, fell to the Turks. During the late 1300s, the Ottoman Empire gained additional territory, and Europe began preparing for its expansion.
One notable victory was the Battle of Maritsa (1371), in which the Ottoman Empire defeated a coalition of Balkan forces, thus solidifying its control over the region and Southeast Europe.
Similarly, another key victory was the Battle of Kosovo (1389), against a Serbian coalition, which gave Ottomans complete control over the Balkan region.
The military campaigns continued, and the Ottomans captured many key areas and cities, such as Adrianople (Edirne), which later became the empire's capital.
A Golden Age of the Ottoman Empire generally refers to the period following the conquest of Constantinople in 1453 by Mehmed II, roughly at the end of Suleiman the Magnificent's reign (1520-1566).
During Sultan Suleiman's reign, Ottoman power reached its zenith in terms of culture, politics, and economics. The empire reached its maximum extent during this time, extending over three continents and controlling several key trade routes connecting Asia with Europe. Trade began to flourish, and Suleiman started building new infrastructure and mosques throughout the empire.
The Topkapi Palace in Istanbul became the imperial seat of the empire, where the sultan made every important decision and decisions on state matters. Suleiman became known in the West as "the Magnificent" due to his wealth and power, as well as his political and cultural achievements.
After conquering Constantinople (Istanbul), Mehmed II ushered in an era of wealth and power for the Ottoman Empire. The empire expanded rapidly over the next century into Southeast Europe, North Africa and the Middle East.
Bayezid II, who came after Mehmed, spent most of his reign consolidating power and addressing a variety of political, economic, and social issues. However, his son, Selim, continued the conquests.
In 1517, Selim conquered the Mamluk empire, which spanned much of the rest of modern-day Turkiye, Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Palestine, and the northern parts of Egypt and Libya. In that one-year-long campaign, Selim nearly doubled the size of his empire to span much of the Mediterranean.
This conquest left the Ottoman emperor not only the ruler of the holy places of Islam (Makkah and Medina) and the cultural centre of Istanbul but also the power controlling the trade routes around the Mediterranean.
Suleiman succeeded his father Selim as sultan in September 1520 and began his reign with campaigns against the Christian powers in central Europe and the Mediterranean. He extended the empire all the way to southeast Europe, the Middle East, the Yemeni coasts, and the Persian gulf as well.
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The Ottoman dynasty laid claim to the Muslim caliphate in 1517 after defeating the Mamluks and gaining control of the holy cities of Makkah and Madina. Selim I claimed the title of the Caliph from the last Abbasid caliph, Al-Mutawakkil III, who had held a symbolic position under the Mamluks. He made himself the ‘Custodian of the holy cities of Makkah and Madinah’ in the Hejaz region.
Historically, the title of ‘Caliphate’ was a central institution in Islam, serving as both a spiritual and temporal authority for Muslims worldwide. Whoever held the ‘Caliph’ title was considered a successor of the Holy Prophet (PBUH) and supreme religious and political leader of all Muslims across the world.
Throughout history, it was passed from one empire to another, starting with the Rashidun caliphate, the Umayyad caliphate, the Abbasid caliphate, and lastly, the Ottomans.
Saladin first used the title ‘Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques’ to unite Muslims in their fight against the Crusaders. Selim I adopted this title after defeating Mamluks. As the custodians of the two mosques, the Ottoman caliphs had a number of responsibilities like
1. Maintaining and protecting the holy sites
2. Facilitating the annual Hajj pilgrimage for Muslims from across the world
3. Funding and overseeing the construction of mosques and religious institutions
Additionally, as caliphs, the Ottoman rulers were seen as protectors of Islam. They issued religious decrees (fatwas) through the office of the Sheikh al-Islam and played an important role in defining and promoting Islamic jurisprudence.
Trade and commerce were the key drivers of the Ottoman Empire's success and longevity, allowing it to flourish as a hub of trade, agriculture, and craftsmanship. After capturing strategic locations in Europe, the Middle East, and Africa, the empire controlled many important trade routes like the Silk Road, Mediterranean, Red Sea, and Persian Gulf.
The Ottomans also imposed taxes and tariffs on trade which passed through their territory, which became a significant source of revenue. For instance, they controlled the spice trade flowing from India to Europe, extracting duties from European merchants. The empire also issued capitulations, agreements granting privileges to foreign merchants, which stimulated trade but later became a source of economic dependency.
Besides taxes, agriculture was the economic backbone of the Ottoman Empire, with the majority of its population engaged in farming. Due to the fertile soils, grains, olives, cotton, and fruits could be grown in Anatolia, the Balkans, and the Middle East.
Farmers were taxed on their produce, and the surplus was used to supply cities, feed the military, and support trade. The state invested in infrastructure, such as irrigation systems and roads, to enhance agricultural output and facilitate the movement of goods.
The Ottoman architecture draws heavily from Persian, Byzantine, and Arabic styles, intermingling the three to create a unique blend. This blend is perfectly embodied in the wall art designs for masjids or mosques, several of which were commissioned by the sultans as they are central to Islamic belief. Madrassas (religious schools), soup kitchens, hospitals, universities, and sultans' tombs are also perfect examples of Turkish architectural mastery.
Mimar Sinan (l. 1488/1490-1588), a prominent Ottoman architect, served under Suleiman the Magnificent and his two successors and rivalled the excellence of Michelangelo (l. 1475-1564). Sinan was responsible for designing masterpieces like Suleymaniye Mosque (inaugurated in 1557) and Selimiye Mosque (inaugurated in 1575); one of his disciples was responsible for the iconic Sultan Ahmed Mosque or Blue Mosque (completed in 1616).
Ottoman palaces like the Topkapi (meaning Cannon Gate), which served as the imperial housing and headquarters between the 15th and 16th centuries, and the Dolmabahçe (meaning (Filled-in Garden), which replaced the former in the mid-19th century, are also great examples of architectural excellence from the era.
Many renovations and maintenance were also done to Kaaba and Prophet's Mosque in Makkah and Madinah. During Suleiman’s reign, the Kaaba faced structural challenges, including damage caused by floods and wear over time. He commissioned the construction of a protective barrier (a dam) around the Kaaba to redirect floodwaters and expanded the Haram Mosque surrounding the Kaaba to accommodate more pilgrims.
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Nothing lasts forever, and the same happened with the Ottoman Empire. Suleiman's reign in the 16th century marked the peak of the Ottoman era, but after him, the empire’s power and influence began to decline. Even with the weakening of its power, it lasted for the next 300 years.
An important factor in the decline was the incompetent sultans who came after Suleiman. Most of these sultans didn’t pay much attention to the empire's affairs, and the grand vizier (pasha) had more control over government affairs. The sultans spend more time in their royal palaces and enjoyed the pleasures of their harems.
Over time, the once-centralised and efficient Ottoman administration became weak and plagued by corruption and nepotism. The decentralisation of power allowed local leaders to gain autonomy, weakening the central government’s control over its vast territories.
Economic difficulties began in the late 16th century when the Dutch and British completely closed the old international trade routes through the Middle East. As a result, the prosperity of the Middle Eastern provinces declined.
The Ottoman economy was disrupted by inflation, caused by the influx of precious metals into Europe from the Americas, and an increasing trade imbalance between East and West. Further, in the 18th century, the Industrial Revolution bypassed the Ottomans, leaving their economy unable to compete with industrialised European powers.
The decline of the Ottoman can also be attributed to external factors. Like the rise of the Russian empire and its influence in the region, it also posed the greatest threat to the Ottomans. As a result of countless wars with Russia, the Ottomans lost many territories in the 18th century, mainly in East Europe and West Asia. The important ones included Azov, Crimea, and Bessarabia.
Then, nationalist movements among the empire’s diverse ethnic groups, including Greeks, Serbs, Arabs, and Armenians, challenged Ottoman unity. As a result, many later gained independence, resulting in territorial losses, particularly the Hungry in 1716 after the Holy League wars and the Greeks after the Greek War of Independence in 1830.
In the start of the 20th century the Ottoman Empire had become so weak that other countries began to refer to it as the ‘Sick man of Europe’. There were no industries, limited modernisation and the economic and social system was on the verge of collapse.
When World War I began in 1914 the Central Powers (Germany and Austria-Hungary) offered Ottomans assistance in recovering their economic losses in return for their help in forming an alliance. Besides, Ottomans had very little to no alliance at that time and this might have been their only chance of survival.
However, the decision to join Central Powers proved disastrous, as the empire was unprepared for the scale and complexity of the conflict. The Central Powers were defeated and Allies began occupying the Ottoman territories and started partitioning it among themselves under the Treaty of Sèvres (1920).
The treaty dismantled much of the empire, leaving only Anatolia and parts of the Middle East under Ottoman control. However, they soon lost Arab dominated areas because of British backed Arab revolt (1916-1918)
In the aftermath of World War I, nationalist forces led by Mustafa Kemal Ataturk opposed foreign occupation and the weak Ottoman leadership. The Turkish War of Independence (1919–1923) successfully resisted the terms of the Treaty of Sèvres. In 1922, the Sultanate was officially abolished, marking the end of Ottoman rule. The Republic of Turkey was declared in 1923, with Ataturk as its first president.
With the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire, the Caliphate was also abolished. The last Ottoman Caliph, Abdulmejid, was deposed by Kamal Ataturk on 3 March 1924.
At first, Ataturk didn’t want to abolish the caliphate. However, his views changed because his vision was to establish a secular and modern Turkey state. The caliphate reminded of religious authority and was outdated, which did not align with the new secular republic state. Therefore after 18 months, when the Ottoman Empire was dissolved, the Caliphate was abolished as well.
There is no doubt that the Ottoman Empire was the most powerful Islamic Empire because it controlled strategic trade routes and had a formidable army too. It lasted for 600 years due to its strong military and naval power, which protected its territories.
However, as time went on, many internal and external factors contributed to the Ottomans' decline and loss of power. Weak rulers who were interested in their leisure rather than focusing on the Empire's affairs were the main cause of its decline.
Further, other European countries became more powerful and advanced over time, whereas the Ottomans failed to match their advancements and eventually lost power. Their military became outdated and lost crucial battles in the 18th and 19th centuries, which resulted in the loss of many important territories in Europe and Asia, contributing to its fall.
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